[48] In 2003, following threats of forcible removal by the Thai government, the U. S., in a significant victory for the Hmong, agreed to accept 15, 000 of the refugees. [49] Several thousand Hmong people, fearing forced repatriation to Laos if they were not accepted for resettlement in the U. S., fled the camp to live elsewhere within Thailand where a sizable Hmong population has been present since the 19th century. [50] In 2004 and 2005, thousands of Hmong fled from the jungles of Laos to a temporary refugee camp in the Thai province of Phetchabun. [51] The European Union, [52] UNHCHR, and international groups have since spoken out about the forced repatriation. [52][53][54][55] Alleged plot to overthrow the government of Laos[edit] On 4 June 2007, as part of an investigation labeled Operation Tarnished Eagle, U.
(2015). Dreams of the Hmong Kingdom: The Quest for Legitimation in French Indochina, 1850–1960. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-0-299-29884-5. ^ Michaud, J. (1 April 2000). "The Montagnards and the State in Northern Vietnam from 1802 to 1975: A Historical Overview". Ethnohistory. 47 (2): 333–68. 1215/00141801-47-2-333. S2CID 162363204. ProQuest 209752840. ^ Michaud, J. et al.
Retrieved 30 December 2013. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Bomar, Julie. "Hmong History and Culture. " Kinship networks among Hmong-American refugees. New York: LFB Scholarly Pub., 2004. 33–39. Print. ^ Li, Hui; Huang, Ying; Mustavich, Laura F. ; Zhang, Fan; Tan, Jing-Ze; Wang, Ling-E; Qian, Ji; Gao, Meng-He; Jin, Li (1 November 2007). 122 (3): 383–388. ISSN 1432-1203. S2CID 2533393. ^ De la Cadena, Marisol. Starn, Orin.
Several Mong Leng activists, led by Dr. Paoze Thao (Professor of Linguistics and Education at California State University, Monterey Bay), drew attention to the problems associated with omitting "Mong" from the language of the bill. They noted that despite nearly equal numbers of Hmong Der and Mong Leng in the United States, resources are disproportionately allocated to the Hmong Der community. This not only includes scholarly research, it also includes the translation of materials, including the curriculum proposed by the bill. [70] Despite these arguments, "Mong" was not added to the bill. In the version of the bill which was passed by the assembly, "Hmong" was replaced by "Southeast Asians, " a broader and more inclusive term.
The modern Hmongs presently reside mainly in Southwest China (Guizhou, Yunnan, Sichuan, Chongqing, and Guangxi) and countries in Southeast Asia such as Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar. There is also a very large diasporic community in the United States, comprising more than 300, 000 Hmong. The Hmong diaspora also has smaller communities in Australia and South America (specifically Argentina and French Guiana, the latter being an overseas region of France). During the First and Second Indo-China Wars, France and the United States intervened in the Lao Civil War by recruiting thousands of Hmong people to fight against forces from North and South Vietnam, which were stationed in Laos in accordance with their mission to support the communist Pathet Lao insurgents.
The Miao nationality includes Hmong people as well as other culturally and linguistically related ethnic groups who do not call themselves Hmong. These include the Hmu, Kho (Qho) Xiong, and A-Hmao. The White Miao (Bai Miao) and Green Miao (Qing Miao) are Hmong groups. Xijiang, a Hmong-majority township in Guizhou, China Vietnam[edit] The Hmong or Miao began to migrate to Tonkin (Northern Vietnam) in 19th century, where they struggled to establish their community on the high mountains. They recognized the Tai-speaking overlords of valleys, who were vassals of the Vietnamese court in Hue. The Hue court of Tu Duc at the time was facing crisis after crisis, unable to retake control of Tonkin and the border regions, which the Taiping rebellion and other Chinese rebels spillover to Vietnam had pushed it into anarchy.
While some Hmong people returned to Laos voluntarily, with development assistance from UNHCR, coercive measures and forced repatriation was used to send thousands of Hmong back from whence they had fled. [42] Of those Hmong who did return to Laos, some quickly escaped back to Thailand, describing discrimination and brutal treatment at the hands of Lao authorities. [43] In the 1980s, 1990s and early 2000s, The Center for Public Policy Analysis, a non-governmental public policy research organization, and its Executive Director, Philip Smith, played a key role in raising awareness in the U. Congress and policy-making circles in Washington, D.
Université de Genève. ^ Li, Hui; Huang, Ying; Mustavich, Laura F. ; Zhang, Fan; Tan, Jing-Ze; Wang, Ling-E; Qian, Ji; Gao, Meng-He; Jin, Li (2007). "Y chromosomes of prehistoric people along the Yangtze River". Human Genetics. 122 (3–4): 383–8. doi:10. 1007/s00439-007-0407-2. PMID 17657509. S2CID 2533393. ^ Cai, X; Qin, Z; Wen, B; Xu, S; Wang, Y; Lu, Y; Wei, L; Wang, C; Li, S; Huang, X; Jin, L; Li, H; Genographic, Consortium (2011).
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United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 7 June 2012. ^ a b Jacques Lemoine (2005). "What is the actual number of the (H)mong in the world" (PDF). Retrieved 1 March 2009. ^ "ABS Census – ethnicity". Retrieved 7 June 2012. ^ "Hmong's new lives in Caribbean". 10 March 2004. Retrieved 11 March 2014. ^ Hamilton-Merritt, Jane. Tragic Mountains. ^ "The origins of the Hmong" (PDF). Retrieved 4 March 2022. ^ "The Mong American Families". CiteSeerX 10. 1. 513. 2976. ^ Lee 1996 ^ Yang 2009 ^ "Dr. Yang Dao (Yaj Daus)". Retrieved 10 December 2022.
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[82] Hmong settlement there is nearly as ancient as in Vietnam. After the 1975 Communist victory, thousands of Hmong from Laos had to seek refuge abroad (see Laos below). Approximately 30 percent of the Hmong left, although the only concrete figure we have is that of 116, 000 Hmong from Laos and Vietnam together seeking refuge in Thailand up to 1990. [83] In 2002 the Hmong in Thailand numbered 151, 080. Myanmar most likely includes a modest number of Hmong (perhaps around 2, 500) but no reliable census has been conducted there recently. [84] As result of refugee movements in the wake of the Indochina Wars (1946–1975), in particular, in Laos, the largest Hmong community to settle outside Asia went to the United States where approximately 100, 000 individuals had already arrived by 1990.
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Then, more Hmong migrated from Laos to Thailand following the victory of the Pathet Lao in 1975. While some ended up in refugee camps, others settled in mountainous areas among more ancient Hill Tribes. [92] Americas[edit] Many Hmong refugees resettled in the United States after the Vietnam War. As of the 2010 census, 260, 073 Hmong people reside in the United States[93] the majority of whom live in California (91, 224), Minnesota (66, 181), and Wisconsin (49, 240), an increase from 186, 310 in 2000. [94] Of them, 247, 595 or 95. 2% are Hmong alone, and the remaining 12, 478 are mixed Hmong with some other ethnicity or race. The vast majority of part-Hmong are under 10 years old.
"Human Migration through Bottlenecks from Southeast Asia into East Asia during Last Glacial Maximum Revealed by Y Chromosomes". PLOS ONE. 6 (8): e24282. Bibcode:2011PLoSO... 624282C. 1371/journal. pone. 0024282. PMC 3164178. PMID 21904623. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 November 2013.
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2016 The Historical Dictionary of the Peoples of the Southeast Asian Massif. Rowman & Littlefield, pp. 177–80. ^ Grant Evans "Laos is getting a bad rap from the world's media" The Bangkok Post 8 July 2003 ^ "Being Hmong Means Being Free" Wisconsin Public Television ^ Warner, Roger, Shooting at the Moon, (1996), p. 366. ^ Hmong National Development, Inc. "The State of the Hmong American Community 2013" (PDF).
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Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. [2007] (2007). Indigenous experience today. Berg Publishers, 2007. ISBN 978-1-84520-519-5. p. 239. ^ "國語•楚語下". Retrieved 23 April 2018. ^ Cai, Xiaoyun; Qin, Zhendong; Wen, Bo; Xu, Shuhua; Wang, Yi; Lu, Yan; Wei, Lanhai; Wang, Chuanchao; Li, Shilin; Huang, Xingqiu; Jin, Li; Li, Hui; Consortium, the Genographic (31 August 2011). PMID 21904623. ^ Culas and Michaud, 68–74. ^ Rogers, 2004 p. 225. ^ Lee, Mai Na M.
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^ Ratliff, Martha. "Vocabulary of Environment and Subsistence in Proto-language, " p. 160. ^ Bo Wen, et al. "Genetic Structure of Hmong–Mien Speaking Populations in East Asia as Revealed by mtDNA Lineages. " Molecular Biology and Evolution 2005 22(3): 725–34. ^ Blench, Roger. 2004. Stratification in the peopling of China: how far does the linguistic evidence match genetics and archaeology? Paper for the Symposium "Human migrations in continental East Asia and Taiwan: genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence". Geneva June 10–13, 2004.
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